Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： Word recognition and memory are influenced by the semantic associative relationship between words. The free association method has some limitations in establishing lexical semantic associations. Researchers have proposed a new method called co-occurrence association. This study analyzed the semantic association effect and its neural mechanism from the perspective of lexical co-occurrence frequency. The results showed that the number and intensity of semantic association influenced the processing of words. Words with a large number of semantic associations led to an increase in the amplitude of P200 and a decrease in the amplitude of N400. The brain regions involved in semantic association processing are mainly the superior frontal gyrus and the left medial temporal lobe. Future research should discuss the differences between free and co-occurrence association in establishing a semantic association. Based on co-occurrence association, the behavioral characteristics and neural mechanisms of semantic association are further explored. Research on the semantic association effect and neural mechanism from the perspective of co-occurrence association is recommended.
Subjects: Psychology >> Cognitive Psychology submitted time 2018-04-18 Cooperative journals: 《心理学报》
Abstract： In the process of word recognition, the encoding of letter identity and letter location information plays a vital role. Many English studies found that the letter location information is more flexible than letter identity information. And context predictability has a different effect on letter location and identity information. Chinese word consists of meaningful morpheme, so the encoding of Chinese character identity and location information may have different features from English letter. In present study, we discussed the effect and the time course of predictability on the encoding of Chinese character identity and location information. In order to explore the morpheme processing, the present study recruited 20 students as participants in experiment 1, and instructed them to do the lexical decision task. We used 5 types of word (original word, transposed non-word, initial substituted non-word, final substituted non-word and unmeaning symbol) as prime words when the prime time is 80ms, 150ms and 300ms. We collected reaction time as the index. We found that the effect caused by transposed non-word is significant from that caused by original word under 80ms and 300ms prime condition, but it is opposite under 150ms condition. To study the morpheme processing in sentence, 50 participants took part in experiment 2, and was instructed to read high predictability and low predictability sentences. Each sentence included a different target word of 4 conditions which is original word(OR), transposed non-word (TN), first substituted (FS) non-word and end substituted (ES) non-word. The participation’s eye movement was recorded by EyeLink1000 during reading process. The results showed that the TN condition is not significant with FS and ES condition under high-predictability, but it is opposite under low-predictability. To explore the time course of encoding of Chinese character location and identity information, we used the same materials as experiment 2 and manipulated parafoveal target word delay time for 0ms, 50ms and 100ms. We found that TN condition and OR condition are quite similar when the previewing is 0ms, and the TN condition is analogy with FS and ES condition when the previewing is 50ms and 100ms. On the whole, the data of the present study suggested that the encoding of Chinese character identity information and location information are separated. When Chinese words presented alone, the effect of location information is gradually reduced with the processing time increase. In sentence reading, location information is more flexible at the early stage in parafoveal processing. High predictability can promote the encoding of location information at early stage, and promote the encoding of identity information at later stage.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-27 Cooperative journals: 《心理学报》
Abstract： Regression is one of a usual phenomenon in normal reading. But the eye movements go against normal reading order during regressions. According to the eye moving distance during regressing, researchers divide regressions into long-distance regressions and short-distance regressions. Some English studies suggest that long-distance regressions are guided by memory and two theories can explain the mechanisms of regression, which are the spatial coding hypothesis and the verbal reconstruction hypothesis. Both theories have their rationality and get some studies' supporting, but there are some arguments between them. The spatial coding hypothesis suggests that the eye movements are guided by spatial memory during regressions, but the other suggests that they are guided by verbal memory. And researchers find that first regression was always followed by some small corrective saccades. There is also no consensus among researchers on the guiding mechanism of corrective saccades. The purpose of this study is to explore the guiding mechanism of long-distance regression in Chinese reading and to provide new evidence for the resolution of this dispute. In order to explore the effect of memory on regressions, we recruited 20 students as participants in Experiment 1, and divided them into 2 groups: reading group and non-reading group. First, the reading group was presented with a sentence. After reading the sentence, the subjects were presented with a cue word. The subjects were required to locate the cue wword in the sentence. The non-reading group was presented with the cue word directly, and a sentence was presented before the cue word. The subjects were asked to locate the cue word in the sentence. The formal experiment was organized into a 2×2×3 mixed experimental design. The first variable was the reading condition with 2 levels: reading and non-reading; the second variable was the word frequency with 2 levels: high-frequency words and low-frequency words; the third variable was word location with 3 levels: in the first/middle/last third of the sentence. In Experiment 2, we adopted the procedure similar to Experiment 1 for exploring the effect of text visibility on corrective saccades with another 20 student as participants. It was also a 2×2×3 mixed experimental design, and only the first variable was different. The first variable in Experiment 2 was regression visibility with 2 levels: visible and invisible. It meant that the participants in visible condition, they could see the sentence which they have read before. On the contrary, the participants in invisible condition, when they regressed the goal word, the sentence was masked by ‘※'. In both experiments, we adopted 4 measures of regressions, included initial regression size, initial regression error, and cumulative regression size and regression reaction time. The results in Experiment 1 indicated that initial regression error was higher in the non-reading group than in the reading group. Initial regression size was not different between the two groups, but the first regressing location of the reading group was related with prearranged word location rather than the non-reading group. Word location was significant in all measures except initial regression size. The results in Experiment 2 indicated that initial regression error was shorter in the invisible group than in the visible group and initial regression size was higher in the invisible group than in the visible group. It was because the invisible group might use more time to read. Cumulative regression size was higher in the invisible group than in the visible group. Word location was significant with initial regression size and initial regression error. Word frequency was not significant in all two experiment conditions. The results proved that initial regression was guided by spatial memory. Verbal attributes such as word frequency had no significant effect on regression. Corrective saccade affected by text visibility.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： Perspective taking refers to the mental process in which an individual image or speculates the views and attitudes of others from the perspective of others or their situation. Verbal communication is a cooperative behavior. When people get together to communicate, everyone has their own unique life experience, beliefs and background knowledge. The communicator needs to consider the partner's point of view to understand the meaning of the expression, and adjust his own language expression to achieve effective communication. Perspective taking affects the language content that the communicator chooses to express: from the syntactic structure, specific vocabulary, to the expression form of lexical rhythm. An influential experimental paradigm for studying perspective taking called the referential communication task. In order to measure perspective taking, the research mainly focused on the speaker’s referential expression and the listener’s real-time interpretation of the referential expression. The number of researches on perspective taking is gradually increasing, and the research results have proved that perspective taking can contribute to language understanding and expression among communicators. But whether individuals can completely consider the problem from the perspective of others in communication, whether the perspective taking behavior is affected by egocentrism, whether the egocentrism will increase the cost of communication, and whether the egocentrism bias of perspective taking is affected by the presence of others. The above issues are still unclear. The research on the role of perspective taking in language processing mainly includes the role of perspective taking in language understanding and the role of perspective taking in language production. The study found that individuals can consider the communicator’s knowledge level, and can also distinguish between privileged ground and common ground in the process of language production and understanding. The mutual recognition of knowledge among individuals is called common ground, and the information that only one of them can obtain is called privileged ground. However, some studies have found that individuals often show egocentrism, and fail to completely process other people’s language expression from the perspective of others. Different theories are trying to explain these contradictory results. There are two mainstream theoretical explanations for perspective taking. One of these theories suggested that perspective taking is a by-product of the individual’s general processing, and the other theory holds that perspective taking is a result of prediction, which is generated by the individual's calculation of various information. Both theories are supported by corresponding evidence, but there is a situation in which both theories cannot explain certain perspective taking phenomena. This article first sorts out the current research on perspective taking, then reviews the related theories of the cognitive mechanism of perspective taking, and finally looks forward to future research based on the unresolved problems of existing research. A review of relevant studies found that: (1) Whether there is egocentrism bias in perspective taking is still controversial; (2) The egocentrism bias of perspective taking does not always exist, which may be due to the time pressure and the requirement of specific types of tasks; (3) The presence of others affects the egocentrism of perspective taking, and the effect is automatic and independent of task type; (4) The cognitive mechanism of perspective taking mainly includes interactive alignment, memory extraction and probability calculation. Future research needs: (1) Integration of the existing computational models; (2) To further explore the relationship between perspective taking ability and Theory of Mind; (3) Explore the role of private information in the perspective taking; (4) To improve the ecological validity of opinion selection research; (5) Using different technical means for convergence verification.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： Recently, emotional word type has gathered a growing amount of research and has become a hot topic in the neuroscience of affective language. According to their functions, emotional words can be classified into emotion-label ones and emotion-laden ones. Emotion-label words are direct references to specific emotional states (happy, angry) or processes (worry, angry), and they function as the media either for describing emotions (she is sad) or for expressing emotions (I feel sad). They describe or express specific, single emotional states. Emotionally-laden words do not directly refer to or describe emotional states, however, they can evoke emotional feelings or emotional reactions (e.g., wedding, grave). Such words can be associated with multiple types of emotional meanings. Although both emotion-label words and emotion-loaded words can activate emotions and trigger emotional effects, they do not produce emotional effects in the same way. Although both emotion-label words and emotion-laden words can activate emotions and induce emotional effects, the way they produce emotional effects is not entirely equivalent. Emotion-label words can directly label specific emotions and thus generate emotional effects, while emotion-laden words elicit emotional effects indirectly by connecting related emotion-label words. Our review of the studies on these two types of words observed contradictory ideas about which type is stronger in expressing emotions. Some studies believe that emotion-label words are more powerful in laying emotional effects, while others hold that emotion-laden are stronger. An inconsistency exists among studies of the bilingual perspective. Put it in more detail, while there have been studies detecting advantaged processing of emotion-label words in both languages, some other studies claim that they can only find superior effects of emotion-label words in the dominant language. The results are also different in terms of different tasks. We made a conjecture that these contradictory results are related to three factors: task demands, language types, and lexical features. Two theories help explain the effect of emotional words. Lexical representation acquisition hypothesizes that the differences between emotional word types are due to the different experiential information and emotional experiences that children are exposed to when learning emotion-label words and emotion-laden words. We use this theory to explain the embodied account of semantic representation. The density hypothesis explained concerning lexical properties implies that emotion-label words and emotion-laden words have different storage densities and those dense stimuli will be processed faster than discrete ones. Further research should be conducted in the following four paths. The first one is to examine the cause of the differences between emotion-label words and emotion-laden ones. Secondly, we should examine the processing differences between the two types of emotional words at the sentence and discourse levels. Thirdly, theoretical hypotheses that directly explain the differences in word types are needed. Fourthly, we need a comparison of Chinese and English bilinguals in their procession of Chinese and English emotion-label words and emotion-laden. Finally, we are to investigate the neural mechanisms of processing emotional and semantic information using neuroimaging techniques.
Subjects: Psychology >> Developmental Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： There is a great difference between the recognition process of handwritten words and printed words. Compared with the printed words, the recognition of handwritten characters is more influenced by text material. The factors related to the text material include physical structural characteristics of the text, the character characteristics, and the writing style. Research on the neural mechanisms found that the brain regions under recognizing handwritten character is different from those under recognizing printed words. The activation brain area of recognizing handwritten words include the occipital lobe and lateral frontal and parietal lobes, which is the same as those of recognizing the printed words; and also include the left posterior motor cortex, the lateral prefrontal cortex and the posterior parietal cortex, which is different from those of recognizing the printed words. Handwritten word processing involves both holistic processing and feature processing. The future research should further explore around two aspects. The first is how the brain extracts the target words from the noisy visual information when we recognize the handwritten words. The second is to consider building a theoretical model of handwritten character recognition to explain the recognition process of the handwritten characters more efficiently.
Subjects: Psychology >> Developmental Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： Compared with other types of stimuli, individuals preferentially pay attention to food-related stimuli, that is, the attentional bias towards food stimuli. Analysis of the individual factors that influence this attentional bias for food cues showed the following results: First, among the state factors, hunger and negative emotions related to self-threat with high intensity of arousal had an enhanced effect on attentional bias for food cues, which was reflected in early and late attention processing. Second, among the trait factors, the behavior study found that, compared with normal weight individuals and non-restriction dieters, overweight/obese individuals and successful restricted dieters who evoke dieting goals did not have a stronger attentional bias for food cues. However, the event-related potential study found that at the early stage of attention processing, the influence of trait factors on attentional bias for food cues appeared. Lastly, fMRI studies have found that attentional bias for food cues is accompanied by activation of reward-related brain regions such as the insula, orbitofrontal cortex, and visual attention networks. It is suggested that future research should be devoted to the following four aspects: (1) studying attentional bias from a dynamic perspective to further improve the reliability of measurement, (2) using specialized paradigms to explore the neural mechanism of individual factors affecting attentional bias, (3) distinguishing the different state factors to explore the attentional bias for food cues, and (4) the conducting of rigorous screening and classification of subjects to conduct comparative studies among them.
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