分类： 天文学 >> 天文学 提交时间： 2023-02-19
Chengyuan Li
Xin Ji
Long Wang
Yue Wang
Baitian Tang
Antonino P. Milone
Yujiao Yang
Holger Baumgardt
Dengkai Jiang
摘要： Helium variations are common features of globular clusters (GCs) with multiple stellar populations. All the formation scenarios predict that secondary population stars are enhanced in helium but the exact helium content depends on the polluters. Therefore, searching for helium variations in a star cluster is a straightforward method to understand if it hosts multiple populations or not, and constrain the formation scenario. Although this topic has been well explored for Galactic GCs, GCs beyond the Milky Way are challenging to study because of their large distances. This work studies the helium distribution of GK-type main sequence dwarfs in an old ($\sim$12.5 Gyr) GC in the Large Magellanic Cloud, NGC 2210, using the deep photometry observed by the {\sl Hubble Space Telescope}. We compare the observed morphology of the MS with that of synthetic populations with different helium distributions. We confirm that NGC 2210 dwarfs have a helium spread, with an internal dispersion of $\delta{Y}\sim$0.06--0.07. The fraction of helium enriched stars depends on the $\delta{Y}$ distribution. A continuous $\delta{Y}$ distribution would indicate that more than half of MS stars are helium enriched ($\sim$55\%). If the $\delta{Y}$ distribution is discrete (bimodal), a fraction of $\sim$30\% enriched stars is able to explain the observed morphology of the MS. We also find that the He-enriched population stars are more centrally concentrated than He-normal stars.
分类： 天文学 >> 天文学 提交时间： 2023-02-19
Chengyuan Li
Xin Ji
Long Wang
Yue Wang
Baitian Tang
Antonino P. Milone
Yujiao Yang
Holger Baumgardt
Dengkai Jiang
摘要： Helium variations are common features of globular clusters (GCs) with multiple stellar populations. All the formation scenarios predict that secondary population stars are enhanced in helium but the exact helium content depends on the polluters. Therefore, searching for helium variations in a star cluster is a straightforward method to understand if it hosts multiple populations or not, and constrain the formation scenario. Although this topic has been well explored for Galactic GCs, GCs beyond the Milky Way are challenging to study because of their large distances. This work studies the helium distribution of GK-type main sequence dwarfs in an old ($\sim$12.5 Gyr) GC in the Large Magellanic Cloud, NGC 2210, using the deep photometry observed by the {\sl Hubble Space Telescope}. We compare the observed morphology of the MS with that of synthetic populations with different helium distributions. We confirm that NGC 2210 dwarfs have a helium spread, with an internal dispersion of $\delta{Y}\sim$0.06--0.07. The fraction of helium enriched stars depends on the $\delta{Y}$ distribution. A continuous $\delta{Y}$ distribution would indicate that more than half of MS stars are helium enriched ($\sim$55\%). If the $\delta{Y}$ distribution is discrete (bimodal), a fraction of $\sim$30\% enriched stars is able to explain the observed morphology of the MS. We also find that the He-enriched population stars are more centrally concentrated than He-normal stars.
分类： 天文学 >> 天文学 提交时间： 2023-02-19
摘要： Previous theoretical studies suggest that the Population III (Pop3) stars tend to form in extremely metal poor gas clouds with approximately $10^5 M_\odot$ embedded in mini dark matter halos. Very massive stars can form via multiple collisions in Pop3 star clusters and eventually evolve to intermediate-mass black holes (IMBHs). In this work, we conduct star-by-star $N$-body simulations for modelling the long-term evolution of Pop3 star clusters. We find that if the mini dark matter halos can survive today, these star clusters can avoid tidal disruption by the galactic environment and can efficiently produce IMBH-BH mergers among a wide range of redshift from 0 to 20. The average gravitational wave event rate is estimated to be $0.1-0.8~\mathrm{yr}^{-1} \mathrm{Gpc}^{-3}$, and approximately $40-80$ percent of the mergers occur at high redshift ($z>6$). The characteristic strain shows that a part of low-redshift mergers can be detected by LISA, TianQin, and Taiji, whereas most mergers can be covered by DECIGO and advanced LIGO/VIRGO/Kagra. Mergers with pair-instability BHs have a rate of approximately $0.01-0.15$~yr$^{-1}$~Gpc$^{-3}$, which can explain the GW190521-like events.
分类： 天文学 >> 天文学 提交时间： 2023-02-19
摘要： Dynamically formed black hole (BH) binaries (BBHs) are important sources of gravitational waves (GWs). Globular clusters (GCs) provide a major environment to produce such BBHs, but the total mass of the known GCs is small compared to that in the Galaxy; thus, the fraction of BBHs formed in GCs is also small. However, this assumes that GCs contain a canonical initial mass function (IMF) similar to that of field stars. This might not be true because several studies suggest that extreme dense and metal-poor environment can result in top-heavy IMFs, where GCs may originate. Although GCs with top-heavy IMFs were easily disrupted or have become dark clusters, the contribution to the GW sources can be significant. Using a high-performance and accurate $N$-body code, \textsc{petar}, we investigate the effect of varying IMFs by carrying out four star-by-star simulations of dense GCs with the initial mass of $5\times10^5 M_\odot$ and the half-mass radius of $2$~pc. We find that the BBH merger rate does not monotonically correlate with the slope of IMFs. Due to a rapid expansion, top-heavy IMFs lead to less efficient formation of merging BBHs. The formation rate continuously decreases as the cluster expands because of the dynamical heating caused by BHs. However, in star clusters with a top-heavier IMF, the total number of BHs is larger, and therefore, the final contribution to merging BBHs can still be more than from clusters with the standard IMF, if the initial cluster mass and density is higher than those used in our model.
分类： 天文学 >> 天文学 提交时间： 2023-02-19
摘要： The accretion of massive star clusters via dynamical friction has previously been established to be a likely scenario for the build up of nuclear stellar clusters (NSCs). A remaining issue is whether strong external tidal perturbation may lead to the severe disruption of loosely-bound clusters well before they sink deeply into the center of their host galaxies. We carry out a series of $N$-body simulations and verify our early idealized analytic models. We show if the density profile of the host galaxies can be described by a power-law distribution with an index, $\alpha 1$, density fall-off or in the very center where gravity is dominated by the point-mass potential of super-massive black holes (SMBHs). This sufficient criterion supplements the conventional necessary Roche-lobe-filling condition in determining the preservation versus disintegration of satellite stellar systems. We simulate the disruption of stellar clusters which venture on nearly-circular, modestly- or highly-eccentric orbits into the center of galaxies with a range of background density profiles and SMBHs. We obtain the spatial distribution of the stellar-cluster remnants. We apply these results to the NSC within a few parsecs from SMBH Sgr A$^\ast$ at the Galactic Center. Recent observations indicate the coexistence of two populations of stars with distinctively separate ages and metallicities. We verify that the subsolar-metalicity population can be the debris of disrupted stellar clusters.
分类： 天文学 >> 天文学 提交时间： 2023-02-19
摘要： Observations found that star clusters contain a large fraction of binaries. Tight binaries are an important heating source that influences the long-term dynamical evolution of star clusters. However, due to the limitation of $N$-body tool, previous theoretical modelling for globular clusters (GCs) by using direct $N$-body simulations have not investigated how a large fraction of primordial binaries affect their long-term evolution. In this work, by using the high-performance $N$-body code, PeTar, we carry out star-by-star models for intermediate massive GCs ($N=100000$) with the primordial binary fraction varying from 0 to 1. We find that when a stellar-mass black hole (BH) subsystem exists, the structural evolution of GCs (core and half-mass radii) only depends on the properties of massive primordial binaries, because they affect the number of BH binaries (BBHs), which dominate the binary heating process. Low-mass binaries including double white dwarf binaries (BWDs) have almost no influence on the dynamics. Meanwhile, only gravitational wave (GW) mergers from BBHs are strongly affected by dynamical interactions, while low-mass mergers from BWDs show no difference in the isolated environment (field) and in GCs. Low-mass binaries become important only after most BHs escape and the core collapse of light stars occurs. Our result suggests that for $N$-body modelling of GCs with a black hole subsystem dominating binary heating, it is not necessary to include low-mass binaries. These binaries can be studied separately by using standalone binary stellar evolution codes. This way can significantly reduce the computing cost.
分类： 天文学 >> 天文学 提交时间： 2023-02-19
摘要： Gaia BHs, black hole (BH) binaries discovered from database of an astrometric telescope Gaia, pose a question to the standard binary evolution model. We have assessed if Gaia BHs can be formed through dynamical capture in open clusters rather than through isolated binary evolution. We have performed gravitational $N$-body simulations of $100$ open clusters with $10^5 M_\odot$ in total for each metallicity $Z=0.02$, $0.01$, and $0.005$. We have discovered one Gaia BH-like binary escaping from an open cluster, and found that the formation efficiency of Gaia BHs in open clusters ($\sim 10^{-5} M_\odot^{-1}$) is larger than in isolated binaries ($\sim 10^{-8} M_\odot^{-1}$) by 3 orders of magnitude. The Gaia BH-like binary is the inner binary of a triple star system. Gaia BHs can have tertiary stars frequently, if they are formed in open clusters. We have estimated the number of Gaia BHs in the Milky Way disk to $1.6 \times 10^4$, large enough for the number of Gaia BHs discovered so far. Our results indicate that the discoveries of Gaia BHs do not request the reconstruction of the standard binary evolution model, and that Gaia BHs are a probe for the dynamics of open clusters already evaporated.
分类： 天文学 >> 天文学 提交时间： 2023-02-19
摘要： The accretion of massive star clusters via dynamical friction has previously been established to be a likely scenario for the build up of nuclear stellar clusters (NSCs). A remaining issue is whether strong external tidal perturbation may lead to the severe disruption of loosely-bound clusters well before they sink deeply into the center of their host galaxies. We carry out a series of $N$-body simulations and verify our early idealized analytic models. We show if the density profile of the host galaxies can be described by a power-law distribution with an index, $\alpha 1$, density fall-off or in the very center where gravity is dominated by the point-mass potential of super-massive black holes (SMBHs). This sufficient criterion supplements the conventional necessary Roche-lobe-filling condition in determining the preservation versus disintegration of satellite stellar systems. We simulate the disruption of stellar clusters which venture on nearly-circular, modestly- or highly-eccentric orbits into the center of galaxies with a range of background density profiles and SMBHs. We obtain the spatial distribution of the stellar-cluster remnants. We apply these results to the NSC within a few parsecs from SMBH Sgr A$^\ast$ at the Galactic Center. Recent observations indicate the coexistence of two populations of stars with distinctively separate ages and metallicities. We verify that the subsolar-metalicity population can be the debris of disrupted stellar clusters.
分类： 天文学 >> 天文学 提交时间： 2023-02-19
Xiaoying Pang
Yuqian Li
Shih-Yun Tang
Long Wang
Yanshu Wang
Zhaoyu Li
Danchen Wang
M. B. N. Kouwenhoven
Mario Pasquato
摘要： We use Gaia DR3 data to study the Collinder 132-Gulliver 21 region via the machine learning algorithm StarGO, and find eight subgroups of stars (ASCC 32, Collinder 132 gp 1--6, Gulliver 21) located in close proximity. Three co-moving populations were identified among these eight subgroups: (i) a coeval 25 Myr-old moving group (Collinder 132); (ii) an intermediate-age (50--100 Myr) group; and (iii) the 275 Myr-old dissolving cluster Gulliver 21. These three populations form parallel diagonal stripe-shape over-densities in the U--V distribution, which differ from open clusters and stellar groups in the solar neighborhood. We name this kinematic structure the Collinder 132-Gulliver 21 stream, as it extends over 270 pc in the 3D space. The oldest population Gulliver21 is spatially surrounded by the Collinder 132 moving group and the intermediate-age group. Stars in the Collinder 132-Gulliver 21 stream have an age difference up to 250 Myr. Metallicity information shows a variation of 0.3 dex between the youngest and oldest populations. The formation of the Collinder132-Gulliver 21 stream involves both star formation and dynamical heating. The youngest population (Collinder 132 moving group) with homogeneous metallicity is probably formed through filamentary star formation. The intermediate-age and the oldest population were then scatted by the Galactic bar or spiral structure resonance to intercept Collinder 132's orbit. Without mutual interaction between each population, the three populations are flying by each other currently and will become distinct three groups again in approximately ~50Myr.
分类： 天文学 >> 天文学 提交时间： 2023-02-19
摘要： We study the origin of the UV-excess in star clusters by performing N-body simulations of six clusters with N=10k and N=100k (single stars & binary systems) and metallicities of Z=0.01, 0.001, and 0.0001, using PETAR. All models initially have a 50 percent primordial binary fraction. Using GalevNB we convert the simulated data into synthetic spectra and photometry for the China Space Station Telescope (CSST) and Hubble Space Telescope (HST). From the spectral energy distributions we identify three stellar populations that contribute to the UV-excess: (1) second asymptotic giant branch stars, which contribute to the UV flux at early times; (2) naked helium stars, and (3) white dwarfs, which are long-term contributors to the FUV spectra. Binary stars consisting of a white dwarf and a main-sequence star are cataclysmic variable (CV) candidates. The magnitude distribution of CV candidates is bimodal up to 2 Gyr. The bright CV population is particularly bright in FUV-NUV. The FUV-NUV color of our model clusters is 1-2 mag redder than the UV-excess globular clusters in M 87 and in the Milky Way. This discrepancy may be induced by helium enrichment in observed clusters. Our simulations are based on simple stellar evolution; we do not include the effects of variations in helium and light elements or multiple stellar populations. A positive radial color gradient is present in CSST NUV-y for main-sequence stars of all models with a color difference of 0.2-0.5 mag, up to 4 half-mass radii. The CSST NUV-g color correlates strongly with HST FUV-NUV for NUV-g>1 mag, with the linear relation $FUV-NUV=(1.09\pm0.12)\times(NUV-g)+(-1.01\pm0.22)$. This allows for conversion of future CSST NUV-g colors into HST FUV-NUV colors, which are sensitive to UV-excess features. We find that CSST will be able to detect UV-excess in galactic/extra-galactic star clusters with ages >200 Myr.
分类： 天文学 >> 天文学 提交时间： 2023-02-19
摘要： Context: To investigate how the content of massive OB stars affects the long-term evolution of young open clusters and their tidal streams, and how such an effect influences the constraint of initial conditions by looking at the present-day observations. Aims: OB stars are typically in binaries, have a strong wind mass loss during the first few Myr, and many become black holes. These affect the dynamical evolution of an open star cluster and impact its dissolution in a given Galactic potential. We investigate the correlation between the mass of OB stars and the observational properties of open clusters. Hyades-like star clusters are well represented in the Solar neighborhood and thus allow comparisons with observational data. Methods: We perform a large number of star-by-star numerical $N$-body simulations of Hyades-like star clusters by using the high-performance $N$-body code \textsc{petar} combined with \textsc{galpy}. We also developed the tool to transfer the simulation data to mock observations of Gaia. Results: We find that OB stars and black holes have a major effect on star cluster evolution. Star clusters with the same initial conditions, but a different initial content of OB stars, follow very different evolutionary paths. Thus, the initial total mass and radius of an observed star cluster cannot be unambiguously determined unless the initial content of OB stars is known. We show that the stellar counts in the corresponding tidal tails, that can be identified in the Gaia data, help to resolve this issues. We thus emphasise the importance of exploring not only star-clusters, but also their corresponding tidal tails. These findings are relevant for studies of the formation of massive stars.
分类： 天文学 >> 天文学 提交时间： 2023-02-19
摘要： It is well known that numerical errors grow exponentially in $N$-body simulations of gravitational bound stellar systems, but it is not well understood how the accuracy parameters of algorithms affect the physical evolution in simulations. By using the hybrid $N$-body code, PeTar, we investigate how escapers and the structure evolution of collisional stellar systems (e.g., star clusters) depend on the accuracy of long-range and short-range interactions. We study a group of simulations of ideal low-mass star clusters in which the accuracy parameters are varied. We find that although the number of escapers is different in individual simulations, its distribution from all simulations can be described by Poisson statistics. The density profile also has a similar feature. By using a self-consistent set-up of the accuracy parameters for long- and short-range interactions, such that orbits are resolved well enough, the physical evolution of the models is identical. But when the short-range accuracy is too low, a nonphysical dynamical evolution can easily occur; this is not the case for long-range interactions. This strengthens the need to include a proper algorithm (e.g. regularization methods) in the realistic modelling of collisional stellar systems. We also demonstrate that energy-conservation is not a good indicator to monitor the quality of the simulations. The energy error of the system is controlled by the hardest binary, and thus, it may not reflect the ensemble error of the global system.
分类： 天文学 >> 天文学 提交时间： 2023-02-19
Xiaoying Pang
Shih-Yun Tang
Yuqian Li
Zeqiu Yu
Long Wang
Jiayu Li
Yezhang Li
Yifan Wang
Yanshu Wang
Teng Zhang
Mario Pasquato
M. B. N. Kouwenhoven
摘要： We identify members of 65 open clusters in the solar neighborhood using the machine-learning algorithm StarGO based on Gaia EDR3 data. After adding members of twenty clusters from previous studies (Pang et al. 2021a,b; Li et al. 2021) we obtain 85 clusters, and study their morphology and kinematics. We classify the substructures outside the tidal radius into four categories: filamentary (f1) and fractal (f2) for clusters $100$ Myr. The kinematical substructures of f1-type clusters are elongated; these resemble the disrupted cluster Group X. Kinematic tails are distinct in t-type clusters, especially Pleiades. We identify 29 hierarchical groups in four young regions (Alessi 20, IC 348, LP 2373, LP 2442); ten among these are new. The hierarchical groups form filament networks. Two regions (Alessi 20, LP 2373) exhibit global "orthogonal" expansion (stellar motion perpendicular to the filament), which might cause complete dispersal. Infalling-like flows (stellar motion along the filament) are found in UBC 31 and related hierarchical groups in the IC 348 region. Stellar groups in the LP 2442 region (LP 2442 gp 1-5) are spatially well-mixed but kinematically coherent. A merging process might be ongoing in the LP 2442 subgroups. For younger systems ($\lesssim30$ Myr), the mean axis ratio, cluster mass and half-mass radius tend to increase with age values. These correlations between structural parameters may imply two dynamical processes occurring in the hierarchical formation scenario in young stellar groups: (1) filament dissolution and (2) sub-group mergers.
分类： 光学 >> 量子光学 提交时间： 2023-02-19
摘要： High-stability optical frequency comparison over fiber link enables the establishment of ultrastable optical clock networks, having the potential to promote a series of applications, including metrology, geodesy, and astronomy. In this article, we theoretically analyze and experimentally demonstrate a timedelayed local two-way (TD-LTW) optical frequency comparison scheme with improved comparison stability, showing that the fractional instability of optical frequency comparison over a 50- km transfer link can be reduced from $1.30\times10^{-15}$ to $5.25\times10^{-16}$ at the 1 s integration time with an improvement factor of 2.48. Additionally, we also for the first time model and experimentally verify the effect of the inhomogeneous phase noise along the fiber link on the system performance. We believe that the theory and technique proposed here will be helpful in developing the high-stability optical clock networks over large-area fiber links.
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